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Use a comma to separate the items in a list (generally three or more things), including the last two.
He hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base.
You may have learned that the comma before the "and" is unnecessary, which is fine if you're in control of things. However, there are situations in which, if you don't use this comma (especially when the list is complex or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try to stick together. Using a comma between all the items in a series, including the last two, avoids this problem.
Use a comma + a conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect two independent clauses, as in:
He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base.
If there is ever any doubt, however, use the comma, as it is always correct in this situation.
One frequent error in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a coordinating conjunction. The comma will not always come before the conjunction and never after, but it is a rare event that a comma follows a coordinating conjunction.
Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in:
Running toward third base, he suddenly realized how stupid he looked.
It is allowable to omit a comma after an introductory clause as long as it does not reduce the overall clarity of the ideas.
Use a comma to set off clauses that do not directly effect the main idea of the sentence, as in:
The Founders Bridge, which spans the Connecticut River, is falling down.
An adverbial clause that begins a sentence is set off with a comma:
Although Queasybreath had spent several years in Antarctica, he still bundled up warmly in the brisk autumns of Ohio.
Because Tashonda had learned to study by herself, she was able to pass the entrance exam.
When an adverbial clause comes later on in the sentence, however, the writer must determine if the clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence or not. A "because clause" can be particularly troublesome in this regard. In most sentences, a "because clause" is essential to the meaning of the sentence, and it will not be set off with a comma:
The Okies had to leave their farms in the midwest because the drought conditions had ruined their farms.
Sometimes, though, the "because clause" must be set off with a comma to avoid misreading:
I knew that President Nixon would resign that morning, because my sister-in-law worked in the White House and she called me with the news.
Without that comma, the sentence says that Nixon's resignation was the fault of my sister-in-law. Nixon did not resign because my sister-in-law worked in the White House, so we set off that clause to make the meaning clearly parenthetical.
When a parenthetical element — an interjection, adverbial modifier, or even an adverbial clause — follows a coordinating conjunction used to connect two independent clauses, we do not put a comma in front of the parenthetical element.
The Red Sox were leading the league at the end of May, but of course, they always do well in the spring. [no comma after "but"]
The Yankees didn't do so well in the early going, but frankly, everyone expects them to win the season. [no comma after "but"]
The Tigers spent much of the season at the bottom of the league, and even though they picked up several promising rookies, they expect to be there again next year.
When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are mentioned together, the state or country's name is treated as a parenthetical element.
We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer.
Paris, France, is sometimes called "The City of Lights."
When the state becomes a possessive form, this rule is no longer followed:
Hartford, Connecticut's investment in the insurance industry is well known.
Also, when the state or country's name becomes part of a compound structure, the second comma is dropped:
Heublein, a Hartford, Connecticut-based company, is moving to another state.
An absolute phrase is always treated as a parenthetical element, as is an interjection. An addressed person's name is also always parenthetical. Be sure, however, that the name is that of someone actually being spoken to.
Their years of training now forgotten, the soldiers broke ranks.
Yes, it is always a matter, of course, of preparation and attitude.
I'm telling you, Juanita, I couldn't be more surprised.
Use a comma to separate a series (three or more) of adjectives. You could think of this as "That tall, distinguished, good looking fellow" rule (as opposed to "the little old lady").
Use a comma to set off quoted elements. Since we don't use quoted material all the time, this is probably a difficult rule to remember in comma usage. Generally, use a comma to separate quoted material from the rest of the sentence that explains or introduces the quotation:
Summing up this argument, Peter Coveney writes, "The purpose and strength of the romantic image of the child had been above all to establish a relation between childhood and adult consciousness."
If an attribution of a quoted element comes in the middle of the quotation, two commas will be required. But be careful not to create a comma splice in so doing.
"The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many things."
"I should like to buy an egg, please," she said timidly. "How do you sell them?"
Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast.
Some say the world will end in ice, not fire.
It was her money, not her charm or personality, that first attracted him.
Use a comma to avoid confusion.
For most the year is already finished.
For most, the year is already finished.
Outside the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.
Outside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.
Other places to use a comma include:
Between a city and a state
Vancouver, British Columbia
A date and the year
September 14, 1974
A name and a title when the title comes after the name
Robert Joiner, Constable
In long numbers
5,456,783 or $14,682
Note that we use a comma or a set of commas to make the year parenthetical when the date of the month is included:
July 4, 1776, is regarded as the birth date of American liberty.
Without the date itself, however, the comma disappears:
July 1776 was one of the most eventful months in our history.
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